World Weather, Climate, and Society Projects |
Baghdad, Iraq Lynn Hasday, Ann Marchaland, Brian Venti
The Inflence of Rivers and Climate on Baghdad, Iraq The Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, along with their reaction to the climate, have both helped and hurt Baghdad, Iraq. The rivers provided pathways to other civilizations, allowing Baghdad to grow into the transportation and cultural center of Iraq. Its fertile soil, deposited by flooding, provided the area with the ability to become the birthplace of civilization through tremendous agricultural production. Although the flooding of the rivers greatly enhanced the area, it has also had disastrous effects, severely damaging food production and the culture of its people. Baghdad’s geographical location has allowed the city to flourish due to the availability of transportation. The Tigris and Euphrates Rivers have encouraged trade between societies, enhancing cultural and economic development. Every new development of transportation has helped the expansion of Baghdad, an example being the invention of the steamboat. The relatively fast moving ships brought significant wealth to the area by permitting more frequent communication and travel to other societies. Less navigable sections of the rivers were later made passable by the establishment of navigation channels.
The need for more transportation systems led to the construction of railways, including more than thirty bridges crossing the rivers which connect Baghdad with much of the rest of the country.1 Baghdad, possessing vast highways, railways, canals, and an airport as a result of its ease of development by geographic and climatic advantages, is the center of Iraqi transportation. The hot, arid summer climate of Iraq precipitates next to no rain, causing winter rains to significantly increase water levels. The climate, in combination with the rise of river beds due to the deposition of large amounts of silt by slow currents, has caused the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers to repeatedly flood Baghdad and the surrounding area.2
This climatic event created extremely fertile soil on the flood plains between the two rivers, providing the first civilizations with the means to thrive agriculturally. The success of agricultural production allowed the area around Baghdad to become one of the first civilized societies in human history. Agricultural production was so tremendous that it provided people from ancient Mesopotamia to the relatively recent society of Baghdad a surplus to trade that other cultures desperately needed. The culture flourished as a result of its use of agricultural opportunity. The unpredictability of flooding has lead to highs and lows of agricultural production. The high points of agricultural production led to a prosperous, well fed, and culturally rich society. A few decades ago, Iraq had an extremely high level of food per capita in comparison with the surrounding areas. An increase in availability of food from 1,958 calories in 1961 to 3,200 calories per person between 1984 and 1990 surpassed the people’s requirement of 2,250 calories each day.3 This provided the people with a rich life, incorporating food as a large part of their culture.
Because it was available, extra food was usually cooked on the chance that unexpected guests may arrive. Guests were treated to several elaborate dishes which they couldn’t refuse, considering it was rude to deny an offer after being asked a second time. A sign of status was to leave extra food on the plate, showing that one could afford to waste.4 While the flooding of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers has helped the city of Baghdad by providing fertile soil, it has also damaged the city by ruining crops. Because Baghdad is only 34 meters above sea level, it is extremely susceptible to flooding and hampers flood drainage due to its high water table.5 Detrimental floods have occurred much less often since the undertaking of flood control, but occur nevertheless. Without previous preventative measures such escape channels with overflow reservoirs being maintained, the city has been in great danger of natural disaster. Recent destruction and neglect of the irrigation systems, which provided the city with relative stability of agricultural production and protection against harmful flooding, have severely damaged food crops and the role of food in Iraqi life. Beginning in 1990, the greatly depleting nutritional situation and threat of famine prompted foreign nations to consider policies that would provide Iraqi citizens with a sustainable amount of food. On April 14, 1995, the United Nations Security Council established the Oil for Food program, giving Iraq the option of selling set amounts of oil, a natural resource of the area provided by previous climate conditions, to purchase necessities for its people. The implementation of the program began in December of 1996, with the first food shipments arriving in March of 1997. In order to maintain affordable, yet profitable oil prices, at the beginning of the program Iraq was allowed to sell only two billion dollars worth of oil every six months. Two thirds of this money had to be used toward the humanitarian needs of the citizens, such as food and medicine. The people were in desperate need of these supplies due to malnutrition and the increasing spread of disease.
Because political conflicts denied the people of the ability to make use of the land’s fertile soil, their situation continued to worsen. The limit on oil sales was later raised to over five billion dollars every six months, and eventually limits on oil sales were revoked.6 The needs of the citizens of Baghdad have by no means been met, but the Oil for Food program has made a considerable attempt to alleviate a substantial amount of humanitarian strain. The location of Baghdad, Iraq between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers and its sometimes unpredictable climate has provided the means for civilization to flourish as well as destruct. Baghdad has become the center of transportation in Iraq, providing connections with its country and others, facilitating trade. The fertile soil produced by flooding has allowed the society to produce enough food for a rich culture, but crops and culture have been severely damaged by uncontrolled flooding due to political situations. With the hopeful alleviation of political hindrances, Baghdad has the potential to once again become a prosperous and culturally rich society. Bibliography Al-Obaidi, Hisham and Toumia, Noor J., History of Iraq, 2004. 2 November 2004. Eating the Iraq Way, 22 November 2004. Office of the Iraq Programme Oil-for-Food, Oil-for-Food, 4 November 2004. 9
December 2004. Railroads, Water Resources, Country Studies US, 9 December 2004. 1 Railroads, Water Resources
Technology and Climate in Iraq Since civilization was born in ancient Mesopotamia thousands of years ago, technology has been a driving factor in the growth and progress of the peoples of this region. Many of the new and changing technologies have been closely connected to the weather and climate of this unique part of the world. In my opinion, the three most important technological developments for Mesopotamia and Iraq over time have been irrigation, shelter and architecture, and the use of oil. Before we can make these connections between technology and the climate of Iraq, we must look at what makes this climate unique from others around the world. Iraq’s climate is classified as sub-desert and this gives the region two distinct seasons. First, the summers (May-October) in Iraq are hot, with temperatures often exceeding 120° F.1 Another important characteristic of the sub-desert summers is the lack of rainfall, since summer precipitation rarely climbs above one inch. On the contrary, the winter season normally has up to 10 inches of rainfall and milder, often cold temperatures. Those 10 inches of rain come in strong storms that can often lead to floods since the land is not prepared for large amounts of precipitation.2 Winter temperatures sometimes even drop to around freezing and frosts are not uncommon. Both of these distinct seasons have caused technological developments over the past 7000 years. As I wrote in my think piece, Mesopotamia is considered to be the birthplace of civilization and this development was fueled by technology. The invention of irrigation techniques around 5000 BC in the region between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers was the foundation for the development of the first towns and cities. Irrigation made this development possible in two ways. First, the irrigation canals drained the swampy land between the rivers and turned it into solid ground upon which houses and towns could be built. Secondly, the short canals, often less than 1 kilometer long, diverted water from the rivers into the fields.3 This allowed agriculture to thrive in a land that lacked sufficient rainfall, and until now was infertile. Also, the twisting nature of both rivers further allowed the construction of canals near the riverbanks. With this new innovation, Mesopotamia became a center for agricultural growth and was often called “the fertile crescent” for the rich soil it possessed. The Mesopotamian climate combined with technology provided the fertility necessary to lead to innovations such as the domestication of grains and animals.4 Both foreign plants and animals were now able to survive in this region, creating a massive food surplus. Since at that time food was often scarce, this led to a large migration into Mesopotamia, thus creating the first towns and cities. As time went on, clay was replaced with concrete as the primary source of building material. Concrete protects against the climate in many of the same ways as clay, such as being cool and strong. In fact, the concrete found in the Middle East is considered to be some of the best in the world, considering the long-lasting nature of many statues from this region. A necessary technological development was natural air conditioning, which was made possible because of the northwesterly winds of Iraq. Iraqis used these winds to fill the cool basements of their houses, and then have that cool air filter into the rest of the house. Of course, the development of modern air conditioning has also affected Iraq, making indoor life much more tolerable. Oil’s connection to the Iraqi climate goes back tens of thousands of years to when the desert was not a desert. At that time, this region was covered with plants and flourishing. The photosynthesis of those plants, along with years of development in the hot arid climate has created oil deep below the desert. As I mentioned before, oil drove the economy of Iraq until the recent fall of Saddam Hussein. Oil revenues were the only economic factor keeping this country out of debt even though Iraq remained a strong global political power.7 By the end, Iraq’s dependence upon oil was so great that many aspects of the pre-1900 economies had been forgotten. The great agriculture that had created Mesopotamia had dried up along with the Euphrates and the Tigris. All of this was due to the increased demand of oil all over the world, and the bargaining strength of OPEC. The technological development of oil has certainly transformed modern Iraq, and the climate is part of both the cause and the consequence. Other than these three technologies, there have been many that have changed life in Iraq throughout history. Modern Iraq has almost everything that leading nations have technologically including modern cars, airplanes, computers, and perhaps even weapons. Since the birth of civilization, technology has been the driving factor and irrigation, shelter, and oil represent just three that are closely connected with Iraq’s climate and weather. We found our weather data at CNN.com. Bibliography “Fossils into Fuel” http://www.schoolscience.co.uk/content/4/chemistry/fossils/p3.html Lamb, H.H. (1995) Climate, History, and the Modern World. Routledge Press: New York, NY Pollock, Susan. (1999) Ancient Mesopotamia. Cambridge University Press: New York, NY Roux, Georges. (1985). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books: New York, NY “The Architecture of Irak: The Lost Art of Clay Construction” “The Iraqi Republic” http://i-cias.com/e.o/iraq.htm “Transportation in Iraq” 1 Pollock, Susan Ancient Mesopotamia
Iraq: Sewage Systems, Oil Spills, and Oil Fires The Tigris and Euphrates rivers have a lot to do with the well being of the region in which Iraq is located. Today the Tigris River is severely polluted. Raw sewage runs throughout this river. The fertile marshlands that once existed have either been destroyed or have dried up due to human interaction. The air in Iraq is polluted due to oil fires resulting from broken oil wells. Iraq, which was famous for its state of the art medical care is now in disarray. The population of Iraq is diseased and starving because of the environmental changes since the time of Mesopotamia, most notably due to the gulf war and Saddam Hussein’s careless destruction of a strongly ancient desirable environment.5 Starting in the 1980s Saddam Hussein began systematically draining all of the wetlands that he could to hurt the Shiites in Iraq. Now this systematic drainage has destroyed the environment in Iraq. In areas that were once fertile there is no vegetation. The land is dry and ruined and has and will continue to have major consequences for the surrounding populations. According to Charles Recknagel’s article “Iraq Wetlands Disappearing” the disappearing wetlands will have major impacts on the fishing industry in Iraq, which represent a large portion of their economy. The dwindling wetlands are predicted to change Iraq ’s climate by reducing humidity and changing precipitation patterns. These changes will cause health problems because wind will blow salt from the dried marshlands into populated areas and increase the particulates in the air. An effective solution to this is to flood the area, but none of the surrounding groups of people are willing to give up the necessary water.11 The haven which was the birthplace of civilization according to many educated scholars now lies in ruin. The water, air, and land in Iraq are so polluted that what was once the medical Mecca of the world is now a place where pollution causes disease. There are some positive changes going on in Iraq as well. Recent efforts for preventative medicine have decreased the cases of hookworm, tuberculosis, and rabies in Iraq. The Iraq Water Project is cleaning up the water continually to provide drinking water for Iraqi citizens, and Malaria has nearly been eradicated in some parts of Iraq due to disease control methods based on the geographical location of Iraq.16 The environment in Iraq is polluted now. However, current efforts and future pledges to improve upon and clean up the existing problems with the sewage system, oil spills, and oil fires will help improve Iraq and make it a healthier, safer place to live in the future. Bibliography Committee of Officials. Kingdom of Iraq: An Introduction to the Past and Present. Baltimore, MD, USA: The Lord Baltimore Press, 1964. Green, Matthew. “Languid Tigris Waters Mask Iraq ’s Pollution Menace.” Planet Ark. 13 July 2004. 10 November 2004. http://www.planetark.com/dailynewsstory.cfm/newsid/25984/story.htm. Helms, Christine Moss. Iraq: Eastern Flank of the Arab World. Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institute, 1984. Pollack, Susan. Ancient Mesopotamia: The Eden That Never Was. New York: The Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge, 1999. Recknagel, Charles. “ Iraq Wetlands Disappearing.” Green Nature. 15 June 2001. 10 November 2004. http://www.greennature.com/article498.html. The Iraq Water Project. The Iraq Water Project. 1999. 10 November 2004. http://www.iraqwaterproject.com/intro.htm. Where the pictures come from: 1 Susan Pollack, Ancient Mesopotamia: The Eden that Never Was, 30. |
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The cuisine was rich and diverse, consisting of large quantities of meat, grains, fresh fruits and vegetables, dairy products, with saffron and mint as widely used spices.
As people formed cities, trades were created and commerce was developed. Many parts of human life were refined after this birth of civilization, including those changes to ancient shelter, especially in Mesopotamia. As people moved out of caves, houses and towns needed to be built. These houses naturally were built to protect from the elements of the weather. Ancient Mesopotamian houses were built out of mud bricks, with reed mats or tree trunks making up the ceilings.
Finally, it is another important technology which has made Iraq the country it is today: oil drilling. Ever since the British detected oil beneath the Persian desert in 1900, oil has been a driving force in both the Iraqi and global economy. In fact, the people in control of the oil have maintained political power since 1900.
Baghdad, Iraq is located on the continent of Asia at a latitude of thirty-three degrees north and longitude of forty-four degrees east near the doldrums. The air in Iraq is typically warm and dry because it is located where air diverges between the Hadley and Ferrel cells. The climate in Iraq consists of hot and long summers that last from May to October. During the summer, temperatures regularly exceed one hundred and twenty degrees Fahrenheit. There is no rainfall and the humidity is
low. The temperature begins to cool down in October. December, January, and
February are the coldest months. There are occasional frosts during these
months. There is also rainfall. Winters in Iraq are customarily cool and
moist in comparison to the warm, dry summers.
Water pollution is a huge problem in modern Iraq. The once fertile river valley where Mesopotamian cultures flourished is now a wasteland. The sewage system in Iraq was destroyed during the Gulf War in the early 1990s. After the war, no sewage system existed and sewage flowed into the street. This is what the Tigris River looks like today.
Air pollution is another major problem in Iraq caused by Saddam Hussein’s regime that Iraqi people are relatively unwilling to fix. During the Gulf war, fighting in the air left cities veiled under sheets of smoke that blocked the sun for days at a time. In addition, chemical factories were bombed during the air war. Oil wells flooded, and were intentionally not stopped so that oil flowed into the Gulf and caught fire. Oil fires are an environmental disaster.
Over 500,000 tons of pollutants continue to be released daily and the World Health Organization has issued warning for people with heart and respiratory problems to remain indoors.
