World Weather, Climate, and Society Projects |
Cairo, Egypt Sarah Ayres, Brandon Binder, Gillian Nadel Egypt: Land of the Nile Introduction History
Cairo is the capital of Egypt and is the biggest city not only in Egypt but the Middle East as well. With a current population of over 15 million inhabitants, the city has evolved for over four thousand years with a variety of social and cultural influences. Northern Africa has been occupied by Ancient Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs, and Turks and monuments that still stand today are evidence of these influences. Cairo has been known by many names, including Memphis, Heliopolis, Babylon, and, Al-Qahira. The city was a center of religious development for Christianity, Judaism, and Islam throughout its thirty or more dynasties. Over 8,000 years ago, Northern Africa was rich with diverse wildlife including elephants, buffalo, hippopotami, and giraffe (Lamb). However by 5,000 BC, some of these species began to die out or migrate from this region, perhaps due to the increased migration of humans and settling near the Nile. The Nile was the best and only source of fresh water in the area and its annual flooding and receding left fertile soil, making an ideal setting for civilization to develop. In addition, Mesopotamian culture gave a foundation for migrating humans to develop their societies. Over the next 1,000 years the settlements along the Nile grew from small villages living primarily off of wheat and barley with the occasional sheep or pig to larger villages with constantly developing irrigation. The Nile was becoming an increasingly important element in the lives of those settled in Northern Africa. Ancient Egypt
The following century and half marked the First Intermediate Period as the 7 th through 10 th Dynasties were relatively unstable. The 7th Dynasty named 70 kings in as many days and the 9 th and 10 th struggled for power, essentially ruling at the same time. The Middle Kingdom began in 2050 BC and saw the reign of multiple rulers named Mentu-hotep, meaning “It pleases Mentu”, the Egyptian War God. The Second Intermediate Period, in which the 13th-17th Dynasties ruled simultaneously, was a relatively unstable time marked by ongoing battles with a group of invaders from the Near East, the Hyksos. Using the previously unseen horse and chariot, the Hyksos stayed in Egypt until they were ousted in 1600 BC by the Pharaoh Ahmose. The next 500 years were known as the New Kingdom and the Kings of the time expanded Egypt and built temples and monuments up and down the Nile. Possibly the most well-known of all the Ancient Egyptian Dynasties, the 19th had many famous Pharaohs including Tutankhamen, also known as King Tut.The 20th Dynasty was not as powerful as the 19 th and the Egyptian Empire split into a divided region with many small kings ruling various areas (www.scinet.cc/articles/egypt/historyofegypt.html). In the Late Dynastic Period (1070-332 BC), Egypt once again was under attack from neighboring regions. The dynastic feuds allowed Theban Priests to assume a share of power and land in Syria-Palestine and Nubia, once under Egyptian rule, was lost. Attacks from Nubians, Assyrians, and Persians continued until Egypt was conquered by the Macedonian Alexander the Great. Hellenistic influence dominated this age known as the Greek-Roman Period ranging from 332 BC to 395 AD. The Ptolemies ruled Egypt as an independent nation and built many great monuments of Greek styles that signified this period. The rise of Christianity would eventually lead to the end of the “Ancient” period of Egyptian history. The City of Cairo Following the fall of the Fatamids, a young general named Saladin came to rule in 1169 AD and had a tremendous impact on the structure of Cairo. After sending the Fatamids to exile, he built mosques, palaces, colleges, and hospitals, and new city walls. Perhaps his most famous construction within the city, the Citadel remains today above the Cairo skyline. Aside from his physical additions to the city, Saladin was a great military leader of the Medieval times, fighting figures such as Richard the Lionheart. Saladin’s influence as a leader of Egypt can still be seen today as tourists travel from around the world to see his monuments throughout Cairo.
Mosques and older buildings blend with the modern city. Following the Saladin’s rule, the next most significant change in the infrastructure of Cairo itself did not come until the Mid-1800’s. Ismail, the French-educated grandson of Mohammed Ali, came to power and began a very important construction project on the swampy banks of the Nile. Bringing in architects from all over Europe to begin the building of the Suez Canal began an industrial and economic change that would impact Egypt for the next century. Finished around 1867, the canal caused the Egyptian government to take out massive loans at high rates. In 1882, the British seized control of Egypt until it could repay its debts. Egypt gained its independence in 1952 and has continued to grow, with Cairo being the centerpiece of ongoing development (www.lonelyplanet.com). Throughout the 1960’s and 1970’s, the West Bank of the Nile River was concreted over to make room for urban sprawl. The relationship of the city with the Nile was becoming less cooperative and increasingly damaging to its natural state. Cairo expanded north into Nasr City in what has become an eyesore to the landscape. Cairo has even expanded up and over the Muquattam Hills, which once stood as a barrier to previous eastern growth. The rapid expansion of Cairo seems as if it will pose a serious problem to the Nile and its resources as transportation, industry, and residential construction litter the banks of the once coveted and worshipped Nile.
Climate Cairo, Egypt, located in Northern Africa between Libya and the Gaza Strip, is on the eastern bank of the Nile River. Egypt, which is comprised of 97% desert, experiences mild winters and hot summers, with an average temperature of 71.1 degrees Fahrenheit (21.7 degrees Celsius), and receives only 1inch of rainfall a year.
With only 5% of the land occupied, Egypt has a population of approximately 69,536,644 inhabitants. Cairo, the largest city in Africa, as well as the capital of Egypt, is home to over 15 million people. Its overpopulation has led to many changes within the country which have had a great effect on the society and environment of Egypt. The desert climate region has experienced many changes throughout history, and there is a drying trend in the climate. Because the Egyptians were among the first to record data, Cairo has a well documented history of its society, and in particular, of the Nile River. Historically, Nile River played a large role in Egypt. The Nile has served, both historically and still at the present time, as a method of transportation and has dictated the agriculture and water supply. However, with global warming, the drying trend of the climate, and a boom of industrialization, the nature of the Nile and the Nile Valley has changed dramatically. Using Chad as an example, Lamb notes the drying changes in the Sahara Desert, and the evidence of there once being a population of animals: This assemblage of artistic evidence clearly implies that there were enough moist places in the Sahara in those times to sustain life, so that animals and men could roam about, and cross, what is now the world’s largest desert. This conclusion is supported by evidence of the dated former levels of Lake Chad, which in the ice age had been extensively inland sea and which, despite a severe fluctuation about the beginning of the post-glacial times, had a water level of 30-40 meters higher than today (Lamb 124). Therefore, the drying trend in Africa, and particularly of the Sahara Desert, as well as the Nile River, has led to multiple agricultural changes within Africa. The drying trends have also caused famine and draught. In fact, the great famines of 2180-2130, and then again 200 years later, were direct results of the “abnormal prevalence of southerly winds from the desert and low level of the River Nile- i.e. failures of the yearly flood” (Lamb 145). Similarly to Chad, Cairo has seen significantly drier climate than earlier in it history. This is known because of the documented yearly floods of the Nile, “some records inscribed on stone go back to the first dynasty of the pharaohs around 3100 BC”, which seemed to have lower levels of flooding as the years progressed (Lamb 90). Lamb attributes this to “a climate development of hemispheric, and probably global, extent” (Lamb 124). The flooding of the Nile was a natural phenomenon which aided Egyptians with irrigation and agriculture. It was this use of agriculture which led to the cultivation of Cairo. Originally, settlers in Egypt formed communities along the Nile for its water source. Lamb notes that “It has been concluded by some that the rise of Egypt, and the organized cultivation of the Nile valley by use of the yearly flood for irrigation, may have been a necessary response to the great contraction of the habitable terrain in Northern Africa at the time” (Lamb 124). Currently, Egypt relies on The Nile, its “bloodlife” and only perennial water source, for over 90% of its water needs. The Nile still serves to supply water, moderate the climate, and transport people and cargo. However, unlike when Cairo was first settled, the Nile is now unable to support all of Egypt. Largely due to the drying climate and to pollution, the Nile River’s sources are depleting at a dangerous consequence for Cairo. Cairo, with its arid climate, receives a mere 25mm (1inch) of rainfall per year. Egypt, too dry to sustain crops, is therefore comprised of only 2% arable land. There are 0% permanent crops, permanent pastures, forests and woodlands, and only 32,460 square kilometers, out of the 995,450 square kilometers in Egypt, are irrigated. Thus, Egypt, instead of relying on agricultural development, is forced to depend upon urbanization. The city’s dense population has led to both air and water pollution, and carelessness of boaters has resulted in oil pollution. Cairo is home to over four million cars (excluding other modes of transportation like vespas, buses and motorcycles), all which contribute to the perpetual smog which clouds the city. The effects of the overpopulation have been devastating to the environment: draining the natural resources of the Nile as well as polluting the city’s air and water. This reliance on the Nile, without its capability to support the country, has also led to poverty, and a shortage of food and housing.
The Mummy of Ramsis I returns after about 150 years away from the country. - I don't want to stay in Cairo. I want to leave to Luxor directly. I heard that Cairo is covered with a black cloud of pollution that causes death to people Cairo is subject to “periodic droughts, frequent earthquakes, flashfloods, landslides, volcanic activity; hot driving windstorms called khamsin occur in spring; dust storms and sandstorms” (http://www.ceepa.co.za/Climate_Change/). This year, Cairo has experienced the natural phenomenon of an invasion of the Pink Locust. Egypt has recognized the dangers in its current state of overstraining natural resources, overpopulation and pollution. Although Egypt does not have a history of environmental legislation, the past few years has brought a wave of new policies. In 1994, Law 4, for the preservation of the environment, was passed. Most importantly, from Law 4 two new programs dedicated to improving Egyptian environment were created: the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) works to institute plans for environmental management and regulate environmental standards; and the Environmental Protection Fund, which grants funs to solve solid waste management issues. The greatest environmental concerns facing Egypt today are air pollution, carbon emissions, energy consumption, and the preservation of the coastal regions. In order to combat these problems, Egypt is working, in conjunction with legislation, to educate its inhabitants on the environmental concerns, and the individuals’ responsibility to preserving natural resources.
Society The cultural traditions, social behavior and practices of any society in history are inextricably linked to the weather and climate of its region. River mouths have always been popular settling spots, even dating back to the ancient civilizations; these water sources provided life, transportation, and basic survival for these communities. Cairo was founded below the delta on the Nile River in Egypt because of the existence of the Nile. Today, this region is hot and dry with the exception of the land directly bordering the Nile. The climate and current weather in Cairo have a substantial impact on everyday life and society in this region. Unfortunately, because of the harsh environment of this northern African region, Cairo society as it is currently is unsustainable.
The Nile runs northward through six countries before hitting the Mediterranean Sea. Forty-three substantial towns, 1,500 villages, and thirty-five major factories rely on the water of the Nile and add their waste to the river flow before the river even hits Cairo (www.hf-fak.uib.no/institutter/smi/paj/Myllyla.html). Public sanitation and waste management are inadequate, leaving people to dispose of their garbage and waste through burning or dumping which causes severe environmental degradation and adds to factors like water and air pollution detrimental to the health of the people living in this region. Overpopulation is perhaps one of the largest concerns in Cairo since it lies at the root of most environmental concerns in the world today. There is a growing problem with street children in Cairo—not only that there is an abundance of them, but also that no one appears to be trying to fix this problem because “the government would rather keep these children out of sight than address the underlying issues that forced children onto the streets in the first place” (www.hrw.org/press/2003/02/egypt021903.htm) —the fact that the natural resources are unable to sustain the current and growing population. Most of these children are on the streets not because they are criminals or runaways, but because their families can no longer provide for their children because the land can no longer provide for them. While living on the streets in Cairo these children are ignored by law enforcement officers and even often raped and beaten by the same police that should be helping them (www.hrw.org/press/2003/02/egypt021903.htm).
The Egyptian government, social organizations, and NGO’s are making a concerted effort in previous years to combat many of these social issues perpetuated by the growing desertification and environmental issues in the region. The Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency has been investing in research to try and find more efficient energy resources that will not result in such harmful levels of emissions adding to the air pollution in Cairo and throughout the country (www.cs.ntu.edu.au/homepages/jmitroy/sid101/uncc/fs119.html). Establishments like the Cairo Air Improvement Project, the Integrated Solid Waste Management Program, and the Egyptian Environmental Policy Program create hope in the notion that the country is working toward a sustainable solution and has acknowledged its previous unhealthy dependency on the finite resources of the region. In terms of the population problem, the government along with other worldwide agencies is addressing and attacking the issue mostly through education and appears to have made a substantial improvement, or at least started to point social standards in the direction of sustainability. Education on contraception and wider availability of a variety of types of birth control has decreased the fertility rate in the country (www.merip.org/mer/mer205/kamran.htm). The Egyptian Family Planning Program is currently working with both women and men to try and promote contraceptive use, protected sex, and even vasectomy in order to lower the population growth rate. The program works through media campaigns and special education programs with men in particular to try and dispel traditional cultural norms of “maleness” in patriarchy and Islamic doctrine (www.merip.org/mer/mer205/kamran.htm).
Conclusion
Sources Binder H.H. Lamb. Climate History and the Modern World. 2 nd Edition. 1995, New York. p90-91. “The History of Ancient Egypt” http://www.ancient-egypt.org/history/ “The Cairo History Guide” http://ce.eng.usf.edu/pharos/cairo/history/index.html “Scinet – A History of AncientEgypt” www.scinet.cc/articles/egypt/historyofegypt.html “LonelyPlanet.com” www.lonelyplanet.com/destinations/africa/cairo/history.htm Nadel Al Jazeerah, “Cartoons: June 2003” November 20, 2004. “Destination Cairo”. November 20, 2004. “Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency” Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs. “Swarms of pink locusts sweep through Cairo”. MSNBC News, November 17, 2004. “World Climate Change and Agriculture in Africa” November 21, 2004. Ayres H.H. Lamb. Climate History and the Modern World. 2 nd Edition. 1995, New York. p90-91. “ Egypt: Environmental Issues” Country Analysis Briefs, 2 November, 2004. “ Cairo—A Mega-City and Its Water Resources” Susanna Myllyla, 18 November, 2004. “ Egypt Reacts Strongly to Withdrawal from Nile Treaty” Warm Africa.com. 18 November, 2004. “Mass Arrests of Street Children in Egypt: Beatings, Sexual Abuse Common in Police Custody” Human Rights Watch, 18 November, 2004. www.hrw.org/press/2003/02/egypt021903.htm “ Egypt and Climate Change” Information Unit on Climate Change, 2 November, 2004. “Modernizing and Family Planning Programs in Egypt ” Kamran Asdar Ali: Middle East Report. 18 November, 2004. www.merip.org/mer/mer205/kamran.htm
|
Colby College | Science Technology & Society Department website design by Gerrit Lansing |
The rich history of Egypt is tied very closely with the Nile River’s fertile banks and existence as a source of water. Flowing south to north, this massive river has had a tremendous impact on agriculture, transportation, religion, migration of populations, and culture as a whole. The narrow Nile Valley as well as the surrounding deserts provided defense and isolation from the arising cultures of the time. Over many centuries, the rainfall has affected the levels of flooding on the Nile and therefore the way in which the Egyptians had to live. This region is rich with cultural and historical records of the ongoing relationship of culture and society with the environment and the Nile. 
In mid November, swarms of the insects “arrived from neighboring Libya after devouring the countryside in central and western Africa in past months” (http://msnbc.msn.com/id/6510233/). The locusts caused little disruption to agriculture, mainly due to the fact that the temperature was below 30 degrees Celsius, which create conditions where the locusts do not actively feed. Ironically, this happening was reminiscent of the eighth plague of the Old Testament, when God plagued the Egyptians and Pharaoh to release the Israelites. 
The northern African Nile region was once a fertile, green, moist area of the world in post-glacial years (Lamb p90-91). Certain species existed in this area because of the moisture the Nile created in the region. Ancient Egyptian civilization in fact thrived because of the predictable and expansive flooding of the river that allowed for innovative irrigation and agricultural techniques necessary to create and maintain a stable and thriving civilization. Because of the initial success of the civilization in this region people continued to settle in Cairo as well as along the entire span of the Nile. Over the centuries however, as worldwide climate has changed and been altered by the increasing world population, the climate and weather in the Nile region as changed dramatically both naturally as well as resulting from human behavior. 
Desertification, overpopulation, and excessive and rapid industrialization have made a dangerous impact on this city and region. Today, Egypt is ninety-seven percent desert with only four percent of its total 995,450 square kilometers suitable for agriculture (
Because the water in the Nile has been so plentiful throughout history, the water is not nearly as polluted as one might think due to the amount of use and irresponsible dumping of chemicals and waste matter; however, as the drying trend in the climate of this region continues, the water level of the river is decreasing, thus leaving the river more affected by pollution and more vulnerable to overuse. Historically, Egypt has enjoyed exclusive water rights over the river in the Nile Water Agreement and there have been few disputes since the Nile has been able to provide amply for all those needing the water resource. However, in recent years, the countries using the river have begun to dispute over water rights since they are all equally dependent on the water and thus feeling the consequences of the deteriorating conditions of the river and the desertification of the region (
Egypt, Cairo in particular, has substantial cultural and social issues consequential of environmental degradation and climate change in the region since the beginning of Egyptian civilization on the banks of the Nile. However, in recent years, upon realizing the extent and seriousness of these issues, the government and other organizations have come together and are making serious improvements. Learning how to best deal with social consequences of climate change is an obstacle facing most developing and developed countries today. In many ways, climate and weather can dictate the boundaries of everyday life for most people. Even the most affluent population of the world cannot always buy its way out of issues caused by climate change and environmental degradation due to human behavior.
