World Weather, Climate, and Society Projects |
Geneva, Switzerland Chase Cohen, Jennifer Hinson, Jessica Stathis The Weather, Climate, and Society of Switzerland, Geneva, and the Alps Dimensions1
Switzerland is divided in three major geographical areas:
Time zone Lakes Rivers Glaciers Climate Generally speaking, spring is wet and cool, April is well known for its fast and often changing weather conditions. Summer is warm and dry with maximum temperatures of up to 35°C (95°F). The temperature depends primarily on the elevation; the zero line (0°C or 32°F) may rise as high as 4,000 meters above sea level (13,125 feet). Fall is usually dry, but cool. The temperature drops significantly in September or October, with the zero line around 2,000 meters above sea level (6,560 feet). Winter is generally cold and dry. The temperature may drop below 0°C everywhere in Switzerland, especially at night. The Alps usually get a lot of snow, even in the lower elevations there is a good chance of snow during the winter. It should be noted that according to Weather.Com there has been an abnormally dry autumn, with the actual precipitation being significantly less than the average.2
Temperature and Elevation
1 http://www.about.ch/
Switzerland and the Environment Although a one might perceive Switzerland to be clean and placid, this type of idyllic setting is not observed everywhere. Centers of industry have reportedly induced harm on the environment in the form of air pollution. Yet, Switzerland suffers not only from air pollution, but from pollutant generated diseases and climate change. Ultimately, climate change will have adverse consequences on tourism, one of the primary contributors to the economy. Specifically, what types of environmental damage have occurred in Switzerland? Moreover, what types of detrimental effects has it produced? Lastly, how will these environmental problems affect Switzerland and its people in their everyday lives? What are the 3 Processes Leading to Air Pollution?
Air Pollution in Switzerland
Air Pollution and Health
One of the most astounding statistics is that the Swiss people suffered from 14.3 million cases of respiratory problems in 19963.
As a result of the prevalence of illness induced by the rampant air pollution, many Swiss people are flocking to resorts at the higher altitudes, where they find healthier air conditions.4 Switzerland and Climate Change
In the twentieth century, there was a visible trend of warmer temperatures. What would trigger this temperature increase? The central causes are considered to be the burning of fossil fuel (which emits large quantities of carbon dioxide), expulsion of propellant gases (those gases generated by aerosols), methane, flurohydrocarbons, and nitrous oxide. Transport generates 35% of the carbon dioxide in Switzerland, while agriculture is the prime source of methane and nitrous oxide.6
This chart shows the varying types of transportation. More specifically, aviation is the largest contributor of emission7
Switzerland, just like any heavily industrialized nation that is not conscious of its environmental responsibilities, is susceptible to climate change. The Swiss Alps are susceptible to climatic impact from the Atlantic Ocean to the west and the Asia to the east. In addition, the Swiss Alps form a boundary between the Mediterranean climate and the typical weather generated by the Prevailing Westerlies. This region is considered to be a transitional location, where temperature inversions are likely to be present over lowland regions8
Within the last twenty years, there has been a reduction in the amount of snowfall, and instead precipitation comes in the form of rain9. The glaciers have also retreated, as surface temperatures have warmed.10 The southern areas of the Swiss Alps have experienced a more significant temperature change than at the higher altitudes.11 Climate Change and Tourism In terms of the tourists’ reactions to the climate change and predicted warming trend of the future, 83% of skiers believe that it will change ski tourism.16 The younger the skier who was surveyed, the more likely s/he was to show concern. Yet, the overall reaction indicated that many skiers are not overly worried and think that the media is blowing the climate phenomenon out of proportion. As a result of this predicted climate change, climatologists, such as Rolf Burki, forecast that ski resorts will not be able to maintain their businesses at lower altitudes, while those travel destinations at higher altitudes will continue to prosper.17 In addition, not only will there be climate change, but also a structural change as well. A literal class stratification will be observed in the mountains, the more affluent class with prosperous ski resorts will reside at higher altitudes, while the struggling proprietors of resorts will live at the lower regions.18 1 “Air.” Environment Switzerland 2002: Statistics & Analysis (Federal Statistics Office). Online. Internet. Available WWW: http://www.umweltschweiz.ch/imperia/md/content/luft/fachgebeit/e/BFS_luft_en.pdf.
Weather and Society in Geneva, Switzerland Looking at the climate and history of Geneva and the Alps is relatively easy. What is slightly more difficult is looking at that climate’s effect on the history and the culture, and that is, precisely, the issue at hand. As a student of history, my focus is invariably on the history of the region and the beliefs and stories attributed to such regions. Fresh water is a key to human survival, if you look at any and every major civilization there is one main thing that they all have in common, access to water, especially fresh water. Though this feature isn’t really a climactic aspect, it does affect the weather and climate of the surrounding region, especially when the body of water is fairly, large, like the Lake at Geneva. The presence of a lake provides both convergence and divergence of air, which, in turn, causes clouds and possible precipitation. In this case, the precipitation often comes in the form of snow. H. H. Lamb presents a brief discussion of the history of lake side settlements, like Geneva, and discusses the melting of glaciers, and the brief warming of the climate. There then seems to have been, during the Middle Ages two periods of mini Ice Ages, separated by a warm spell. These had extensive impacts on the mountain/lake culture developing in the Alps.1 What is most interesting to me, as a student of history, is not so much the climate of the region itself, but more the relationship between the climate and the regions’ history, both factual and mythological/legendary. Mountainous regions have, for much of human history, been seen as no mans land, as the home of goblins, trolls, and dragons. Indeed during early human settlement, it is no surprise that civilizations tended to be built according to the natural boundaries created by mountains. One of the best modern examples of this natural boundary as the boundary of a state is Spain, whose northern boundary with France is the Pyrenees Mountains. This fear of mountains extends throughout history, until the Enlightenment, when ‘scientists’ (explorers really) began to question nature, to explore the heights and try to understand their environment. This is not to say that individuals and/or groups did not venture into the mountains, indeed, one of the most famous mountain explorations was done during Rome ’s 2 nd War with Carthage, and the crossing of the Alps by the general Hannibal with his elephants. His choice to use the treacherous path through the Alps caught the Romans by surprise; it is clear from many Roman texts that they did not expect Hannibal to make such a choice.2 This leads us to looking at the explorers who followed in Hannibal ’s footsteps, trying to see if it was possible to lead an elephant through the Alps. From explorers who happen to carry ‘scientific’ equipment with them during the 1600-1800s we move onto adventure and thrill seekers, including mountaineers, skiers, and true scientists. If we look at literature from the past 200 years, mountains are the home of the recluses, of the mad scientists, even today; mountains have a certain dangerous beauty attributed to them in film and literature. In looking at the history of the relationship between Mountain and Man we can, in turn, see the history of Man’s understanding of his environment. Mountainous regions are no longer the feared home of the trolls, instead they have become resorts, retreats for those individuals who wish to escape from the hustle of normal life. We see this clearly in the rising population in Switzerland, as well as the steady increase in Switzerland ’s income from resort based income; i.e. tourism. There is a direct connection between the climate of Geneva and the activities of its visitors and residents, a direct correlation between the fears of the mountains as home to trolls and other mystical / mythical / fairytale / imaginary / legendary creatures and the reluctance of people to venture into the mountains. On a more modern note, it is interesting to examine the relationship between the weather in Switzerland and one of its greatest exports; chocolate. When first I began to look at the weather in Switzerland, I amused myself wondering if there was a connection between the production of Swiss chocolate and the changes in the weather and climate. The production of chocolate is linked to the core of the Swiss economy. Because cultivation is difficult on the steep slopes that characterize so much of Switzerland, a majority of the country’s arable land is devoted to pasture for grazing animals. The dairy cow was domesticated in Switzerland in prehistoric times, and dairying has long dominated the agricultural sector of the Swiss economy. Today, dairy products account for about 35 percent of the value of all Swiss agricultural activity; livestock accounts for another 28 percent.3 Cheese and milk chocolate—two quintessential Swiss products—are derived from the dairy industry. Milk chocolates are made in considerable quantity. Nestlé S.A., Switzerland’s largest single employer, and Lindt, are major manufacturers of chocolate products. Interestingly, the Swiss companies are actually the original developers of milk chocolate. The cycle begins in spring with the alpaufzug, in which herders and their animals move up into alpine meadows as the snow retreats. During this time of year, cows are fitted with bells of different size and pitch so they can be found more easily in severe weather; the bells produce a pleasant clanging across the Alps. In the fall, before the snow returns, herders and their animals return to lower elevations in a movement called the alpabfahrt.4 This cycle relies on the turn of the seasons, if, say, the winter is abnormally long, and the snow doesn’t retreat as far, as fast, then the cows lack sufficient time to eat, to produce the quantities of milk required to drive the chocolate industry in Switzerland. Alternately, if temperatures continue to rise and pollution levels continue to increase (as described in Jessica’s article) there may be additional adverse affects on the chocolate industry. Since the dropping of the first atomic bomb there has been an increased understanding of the cycle of pollutants. Thus, if the levels of air pollution continue to rise, it seems logical that the cows’ food supply will possibly be adversely affected, and thus the cows will be affected, this in turn will have an affect on their milk production and thus on chocolate. In addition, if the global temperature continues at its current rate, the production of the cocoa bean will also be greatly affected and this will in turn affect Swiss production and economy. The weather in Switzerland clearly has a direct link to its economy, industry and history. 1 Lamb, H. H. Climate History and the Modern World pg 146-47
Climate and the Economy The climate of Geneva, Switzerland can best be described as mild. The non-extreme temperatures remain as such because of Lake Geneva, which tempers the local climate.1 The presence of the Jura Mountains creates an obstacle that reduces the amount of rainfall. Temperatures range from an average in January of 32° F and 64° F in July.2 The economy of Geneva and Switzerland as a whole is greatly influenced by the weather and climate. Switzerland’s modern market economy consistently has a greater per capita gross domestic product than that of its western European counterparts. Switzerland is not a member of the European Union, but works carefully with it in order to remain internationally competitive. Tourism is the major economic industry that is most affected by the climate, and skiing is the particular tourist activity that produces the most revenue. Geographically, Geneva is located in the southwestern corner of Switzerland, surrounded by French land. Surrounding the city of Geneva are the Jura Mountains and the Alps, making it a central location for tourists seeking good skiing conditions in the winter and hiking in the off-season. Geneva is known as the most visited city by the many thousands of tourists that visit the nearby mountains each year, allowing its economy to benefit from the constant influx of tourists. Substantial snowfall in the mountainous regions increases inflow of tourists and greatly benefits the economy. The other Swiss industry that is greatly affected by the climate is agriculture. Geneva produces mostly fruits and vegetables, but farmers also raise cattle and sheep. The lack of extreme weather in Geneva is essential to the success of the agricultural industry. Geneva’s gentle climate also allows it to be one of Switzerland’s foremost producers of wine. Another effect weather and climate has on the economy is closely linked with pollution. First of all, pollution is the cause for many health problems among the citizens of Geneva, which places a strain on health care providers as well as those citizens who are forced to spend money on health care because of pollution-related illnesses. Another effect of pollution on the economy is the movement of the population to the mountains in search of cleaner air. This causes a class stratification because only those people who are wealthy enough can buy the pricey land in the mountainous regions; thus the people left to deal with the pollution of the city and the health problems related are the members of the lower and sometimes middle classes. This puts a great strain on the economy because not only are the residential locations separate—meaning that the upper class is in one isolated area and the middle and lower classes are in another—but also many businesses are moved as well, which separates the types of incomes as well. It encourages the wealthy to stay wealthy and the poor to stay poor because soon there will be very little integration of rich and poor in the business world.3 Geneva is the headquarters of the World Meteorological Organization, “The UN system’s authoritative voice on the state and behavior of the Earth’s atmosphere, its interaction with the oceans, the climate it produces and the resulting distribution of water resources.”4 The World Meteorological Organization is responsible for assistance in natural disasters, “safeguarding the environment and enhancing the economic and social well-being of all sectors of society in areas such as food security, water sources and transport.5 The structure of the World Meteorological Organization consists of the World Meteorological Congress, which convenes every four years to determine policies regarding the Organization and its purposes. The Congress is in place also to “approve long-term plans, to authorize maximum expenditures for the following financial period, to adopt Technical Regulations relating to international meteorological and operational hydrological practice, to elect the President and Vice-Presidents of the Organization and members of the Executive Council and to appoint Secretary-General.”6 The members of the World Meteorological Organization include six regional associations: Africa, Asia, South America, North America, Central America and the Caribbean, South-West Pacific, and Europe. There are offices in several of these regional areas in addition to the headquarters in Geneva.7 The fact that the World Meteorological Organization is located in Geneva gives the city an advantage. There are experts in every known branch of meteorology and climate technology that are commissioned by the World Meteorological Organization, and the resources they provide to the city of Geneva are immense. Not only does Geneva have an exceptionally pleasant climate, but also it is very closely connected with the weather of nearly every single region of the world.
1 http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?tocId=26281 For More Information on Switzerland and the Environment: www.umwelt –schweiz.ch/imperia/md/content/luft/fachgebiet/e/Faktenblatt_en.pdf
www.umwelt-schweiz.ch/imperia/md/content/luft/fachgebiet/e/A!R_info_e.pdf http://www.umwelt-schweiz.ch/buwal/eng/index.html http://gcmd.gsfc.nasa.gov/ http://www.sommets-tourisme.org/e/sommetsG/premier-sommet/actes/bruki.html. |
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