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Manaus, Brazil Richard Crowley, Sarah Eilefson, Sarah Lim Welcome!
Political Stability and the History of Weather in Brazil The political stability of Brazil has always relied heavily on the abundance of natural resources to be found in the Amazon rainforest, and has been severely tested in eras of colonization, periods of boom-and-bust, world wars, and civil wars. Populations migrated from Asia to the Americas when sea levels were lo wered by 100 meters due to the expanding glaciers and ice sheets of the last ice age, and dry land linked Alaska to Siberia (Lamb 112). One group, the Incans, settled along the Andes. Since the only beast of burden, the llama, was too small to carry a man, they lived mostly sedentary lives. They also stratified their populations on the sides of the Andes to take advantage of the different capacities of the land (growing cotton at sea level, maize on the piedmont, and potatoes in the highlands). For people living in the Amazon basin, the climate induced them to be even less materialistic. Belongings left in a thatch-and-pole hut by semi-nomadic people would be destroyed through a combination of humidity and insects by the time the roamers returned to the settlement (Place 22). The Indians also developed a social structure in which each individual Indian would be responsible for possessing mentally all the necessary information for making a living in a tropical rainforest: hunting practices, habits of particular game animals, rituals, food manufacture, and crop varieties (Roosevelt 23). After the arrival of the Europeans, indigenous peoples died from new diseases like smallpox, measles, and typhus in what was eventually called the “largest demographic collapse in history” (Webb). While the indigenous populations were struggling to survive, European colonizers were moving in with horses, dogs, cattle, chickens, and slaves. The animal populations flourished in the void left by humans, and the ecosystems were transformed as Europeans attempted to recreate their homelands to maintain their diet while they simultaneously introduced the African model of agriculture. Brazil under went a series of economic and population booms: sugar, coffee, gold, and rubber; all of which ended in bust. At the turn of the t wentieth century, the Amazon region was in the midst of the rubber boom the effects of which extended much further than the rubber barons could have imagined when they built their opulent Opera House. Since rubber trees were plagued by a fungal disease that broke out whenever the trees were in concentrated areas, such as a plantation, the barons relied on a large number of indigenous and poor farmers to tap the trees in the wild (“Rubber: Boom”). Their reliance on terror to make the people work was only the beginning of the warring aspect of rubber. In 1876, seeds were smuggled out of Brazil by a Briton and brought to Southeast Asia where the trees were not vulnerable. By 1910, Malaysia’s threat to the Amazon rubber production was clear, and by the 1930s, the American Henry Ford was looking for a way to fight the British monopoly. His establishment of Fordlandia, a giant plantation of rubber trees, albeit on a poorly chosen plot of land, gives some indication of the desperation of the situation ( Davis 338). Unfortunately, most of his plantation was struck by a leaf blight that sent “plant explorers” back into the Amazon to find more disease-resistant plants (“Rubber: War”). By 1940, ho wever, nearly half the world’s rubber came from Southeast Asia. While the Americas had mostly stayed out of WWII, the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor forced the United States to become involved. Within six weeks of the attack on Pearl Harbor, most of Southeast Asia fell to Japan, taking their rubber trees with them. Brazil’s decision to join the Allied side was crucial, as the Amazon rainforest provided the rubber desperately needed to wage war, and naval bases on their coast provided a refueling point that solved the Allied supply problem (McCann “Forgotten Ally”, “Goes to War”). There is also a history of civil war influenced by the disparity bet ween the rich abundance of the rainforest and the surrounding areas. Currently, eighty-four percent of rural establishments in Amazonia are based on family farming that is largely ignored in the country’s legislature. National suffering from hunger is not caused by poor soil or inconsistent weather (the opposite is actually true) but instead unequal land distributions (Brunoehler). Large-scale (landlord) farming is more highly subsidized than family farming compared to its yield (Graziano). In terms of conflict over drinking water, Brazil's Amazon basin is categorized as “secure”, or “among the least stressed”. High rainfall and relatively low numbers of human inhabitants, ho wever, are not enough to counteract the effects of pollution, particularly the massive degradation caused by oil spills. Farming techniques like slash and burn have also begun to put pressure on the land. Fortunately, the Brazilian government realizes the importance of accessible drinking water, having endured the Paraguayan war. An even more recent example for the government to learn from is the dried reservoir of Quixadá. Quixadá, in northeastern Brazil, suffered a drought that emptied the reservoirs and led to famine, rioting and the breakdown of the social order. Squatters took refuge on the land withheld from them, and when they were confronted with the choice of leaving but having nowhere to go, or fighting for what was not legally theirs but what wasn’t being used by anyone else, the squatters were left with the most dangerous of situations: desperation. Their “lack” led to a lack of choice: with nothing, there is nothing to lose (Arons). Although this example occurred outside of the rich Amazon basin, its consequences are prophetic, and Amazonia is taking note. Despite its steady rainfall, the government recently attempted to further distance itself from the possibility and consequences of social unrest by implementing the Fome Zero (Zero Hunger) program across the nation (Steffen). Brazilian farmers in Amazonia have begun moving further north in order to expand the areas with favorable growing conditions (the acidic soils of the northern regions, the true tropics). This movement may have a serious effect on weather on a local scale as well as climate in a larger sense. Increasing surface albedo (the reflectivity of the Earth’s surface) reduces heat absorption, which reduces convection and rainfall significantly (Lamb 329). Cooling of the earth in combination with decreased evaporation and precipitation could have catastrophic effects. Locally it means that those same farmers who seek land northward will face drought because of this very movement, making the efforts to end local hunger all the more imperative. References
An Overview of Indigenous Culture in the Amazonian Floodplains The Amazon Basin has long been occupied by indigenous populations. Those populations that live closest to the basin, in the lo west elevations, are subject to the extreme seasonal changes. Social order, therefore, is shaped largely by the fluctuations of the seasons and of the river. There are two seasons, one wet and one dry. Issues concerning shelter, transportation, food, and social interaction are largely determined by the seasons. Creative expression – mythology, religion, celebration, and visual art – are rooted in nature. The wet season, lasting approximately from January to June, involves the flooding of the Amazon River. People are forced to travel by canoe, for there is no dry ground in their communities. Ho wever, because it is difficult and uncomfortable to move around, social interaction outside of the household is largely limited during this time. People spend much of their time in hammocks (one of the indigenous inventions), where they might repair clothing or tools. Crops cannot be grown during this time, and fishing is much more difficult, so people tend to lose weight. Morale and happiness also decline because people cannot be productive or active. The dry season is a welcome time of the year, and there is much activity, happiness and celebration to accompany it. Taking advantage of being able to travel on foot, people spend much of their time socializing and visiting family and neighbors. Even planting and harvesting crops are communal activities. Small crops are planted during this time, and the people rely on the conditions, not the exact day or month, to determine when and where to plant. One of the benefits of the flood is that the soil becomes very fertile. Food is available in copious amounts and there are a many different types and tastes. Fishing is much easier, and a lot of sharing and co-operation takes place, which allows people to emphasize their participation in and appreciation of the community. Mythology: Just as the indigenous peoples live in concert with the river, much of their mythology is based on the Amazon. People often become superstitious during the wet season, believing that the rose-colored dolphins of the river may cause people to drown or to become crazy. Myths may be based on the dolphin, the river, or the rainforest.
The freshwater pink dolphin is endemic to the Amazon River. Source: http://filin.km.ru/image/kit/inia.jpg Celebration: Celebration takes place in the dry season and is a way of honoring community and keeping in touch with and meeting new family and community members. Even Manaus, one of the most Western, developed and populated cities in Amazonia, incorporates indigenous culture into its summer festivities. Religion: One of the predominant religions, called Santo Daime is a mix of Spiritism and Catholicism, and uses a hallucinogenic tea as a means of seeing spirits. One of the original goals of the members was to live sustainably in the rainforest, indicating that this religion, though clearly an influence of colonialism, is in part rooted in nature.
This is a vial of the hallucinogenic tea used in Santo Daime. Source: http://revistaepoca.globo.com/Epoca/0,6993,EPT384839-1664,00.html Art: Another form of creative expression, visual art is also very connected with nature. Handicrafts often have a functional nature, and may consist of items such as baskets, je welry, tools and canoes. Only natural products of the forest and river are used in art, such as bone, seeds, wood, rubber, and plant fibers. References Amazonian Economy and Exploitation Concerns The economy of Manaus, Brazil and of the Amazon Basin draws from the many natural resources of the region. The indigenous populations of the Amazonian floodplains participate minimally in the market economy, sometimes selling fish during productive seasons. Their lifestyles are predominantly self-subsistence, so there is no real need for cash. Manaus, on the other hand, is a large, developed city with a thriving local market and healthy exportation market. Products of the rainforest and river used in the market include fish, rubber, brazil nuts, hardwoods, and other plant fibers. Extracted and mined from the earth are minerals such as manganese ore, diamonds, gold, and petroleum. Eco-tourism, in which outsiders tour the land and river, is a part of the local economy. Chemical production is also a part of Manaus’ economy. Seen here are the cuts made in rubber trees to extract the rubber. Source: http://www.ddbstock.com/rubber4.html Exploitation has been a concern since the Europeans began colonizing Brazil, but it has been an area of concern more recently. One exploited population, the native peoples, is often overlooked. Colonizing Europeans exploited the natives directly – forced labor, especially for extracting hard-to-find rubber – and indirectly – by taking their land and resources. Though lawsuits regarding natives’ rights have occurred in the past decade, little action has actually taken place to enforce regulations. Natives have been subject to resource exploitation, regional development (communities, roads, mines), and land encroachment.
A man tapping rubber, which can be done only manually. Source: http://www.ddbstock.com/rubber1.html There is also the exploitation of natural resources. Overfishing is a problem, especially of the most popular and most profitable fish. Competition bet we en the native population and commercial fishermen is increasing, for the government cannot legally close off or limit usage of any of the rivers. A number of fish species are diminishing, and there is concern over the pirarucu, the biggest and most popular fish. Deforestation is also a problem. Increasing amounts of land are being cleared for crops, timber, cattle, and development. H. H. Lamb suggests that deforestation will have severe consequences on the Amazon rainforest: “Theoretical modeling studies suggest that the increase of surface albedo (the reflectivity of the Earth’s surface) in this case would be likely to reduce heat absorption and hence reduce convection and rainfall significantly” (Lamb 1982:329). Such effects would cause the river to dry up, and the native ways of life would be destroyed. There are myriad benefits of maintaining a region so rich in biodiversity. For instance, it would ensure the continuing growth and complexity of the rainforest, leading to a stable environment. If the rainforest and Amazon we re to disappear, then all the resources already exploited for economic use would also be gone. The people of Amazonia, in particular those supporting urbanization and industry, must be careful in the extent to which they exploit the land.
This is the pirarucu, the Amazon’s biggest fish. Source: http://www.seepeal we b.com/amazon/Amazon%20%20(Ocean%20River).htm References Weather and Environment Impacts Manaus is a remote town located in a rainforest, so obviously there is a large influence by the weather on the environment around Manaus. Yearly it receives about 84 inches of rainfallinches of rainfall leading to the first environmental impact of the weather: flooding. Manaus is located near the junction of two major rivers, the Rio Negro and the Rio Solimoes, which combine slightly to the east of Manaus to from the Amazon river. The land is relatively flat, and therefore serves as a flood basin for the rivers. The average yearly fall of the river may be around 33 feet (1). The flooding is a risk to humans in that it may threaten the city and homes, but there is also important ecological benefits that stem from the inundations. The flooding of riverside forest provides important habitat for fish, particularly juveniles which can use the tree’s root structure to avoid predation (1). A potentially more controversial result of the flooding is that fields which are inundated are an important source of atmospheric methane, as well as good nursery grounds (1) Methane is a greenhouse gas, which may lead some individuals to call for flood control of the plains in an effort to limit greenhouse gas emission in Brazil. There is a dam built up river of Manaus, but there have been problems with Amazonian dams. Because of the rainforest large amounts of plant detritus ends up in the rivers, where it gets caught behind the dams and causes sedimentation, similar to silts in American rivers (2). Unlike north American sedimentation ho wever, the climate in Brazil allows for rapid breakdown of the plant detritus, acidifying the water and releasing large amounts of Methane into the air. The dams reservoirs also inundate large amounts of rainforest, intensifying the issues of acidity and methane, as well as rending land unusable. The flooding in Amazonia may possibly increase in the coming decades if climate change predictions play out as forecasted. There is an expectation that severe weather events will become more common and more intense, something of particular concern to an area which is classified as rainforest (Lamb, Somerville, IPCC). Erosion may increase and more land areas used by humans may become inundated. There is the concern that the historical fixes such as the dam may overflow due to the increased detritus and rainfall combinations.
A second area that was just mentioned was erosion. Soil is strongly affected by the weather and environment in the Amazon. Because the area receives so much rain it has a history of farming. The problem becomes that any nutrients provided by the rain are usually absorbed immediately by the trees where they remain tied up. Cutting the trees down to allow nutrient build-up in the soil has its own issues. Studies have found that removal of forest affects cloud cover (Durieux Et al. 2003). Convection currents may change resulting in seasons becoming more pronounced. The study noted that this was not theoretical – the changes were already underway in deforested areas (Durieux Et al. 2003). Forest are necessary to combat erosion, and with these more pronounced (and potentially more intense) weather events there is a chance that flood rates, erosion and other factors will be much more intense (Bruijnzeel, 2004). A final area that is strongly affected by the weather is the intensity of forest fires. As with any largely forested area, fires are a major concern. Although many of the fires in the Amazon are human induced, they are enhanced by drought and el Niño years (3). Climate change in the future indicates that el Niño years will become more pronounced, meaning unless action is taken to limit burning of forest for agriculture then the problem will become more wide spread. Fire and climate change are part of an accelerating feedback loop. The more trees are burned, the more carbon is released into the atmosphere and the more intense the climate change, weather events, etc. will become. Fires also put particulate mater into the air, which is classified as a pollutant.
A fire burns in the Amazon forest. Source: http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/fera/brazil/bzfire99.html References Overview of Journal Findings The we ather in Manaus was generally cloudy over the time period we observed. The wind direction typically was from the east, with a greater majority coming from southeast versus northeast. Manaus lies slightly below the equator so one would expect that the winds would be blowing from the northeast most of the time. The explanation for our wind patterns may lie in the shift of the actual metrological equator south of the physical equator, as described in H.H. Lamb’s "Climate History and the Modern World"., so that Manaus may actually lie above the metrological equator. Due to its close location to the equator, Manaus had high afternoon temperatures which often felt hotter then it actually was. Most 2 p.m. temperatures would feel like the mid to high 90’s, and could climb into the 100’s on a regular basis. The actual temperature would hover in the mid to high 80’s throughout the day. Mornings saw varied humidity’s, usually above 60%, which reflected on the we ather for that particular day. The afternoon would see a decrease in the humidity and by night time, the humidity would once again be climbing. Scattered thunderstorms, when they occurred, would often occur in the afternoon of evening. Rarely was there a morning report of thunderstorms. One of the factors that might have a role to play in the rain patterns is that Manaus is located right on the Amazon river – providing generous amounts of water for evaporation. About 700km to the north we st lies a mountain range, which may produce a we ak rain shadow effect at times. Finally, the dew point for Manaus generally was in the mid 70’s. Conclusion
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