World Weather, Climate, and Society Projects |
Quito, Ecuador Kate Campbell, Liz Curran, Graham Hennessey
Ecuador There are two opposing marine currents that largely influence the climates of Ecuador. From December to May the warm, moist El Nino current comes from the north, while the cooler, dry Humboldt or Peruvian current from the south persists for the rest of the year. When the El Nino current is stronger than usual, as in an El Nino Southern Oscillation, torrential rains and flooding can occur. Conversely, if the Peruvian current is stronger then dry conditions and even drought can occur.
The Perils of El Niño: Ecuador El Niño, Spanish for “Christ child”, is just one of the many climatic effects currently plaguing the planet as a result of increased greenhouse emissions. As evidence of humans’ global impact, five thousand years ago El Niño we ather patterns appeared rarely, every seventy years. Currently El Niño appears every two to five years in early December when tropical we stern winds over the Pacific Ocean we aken or reverse direction, creating a giant pool of warm water – “t we nty to thirty times the area of the Great Lakes” and eight degrees above its regular temperature. Mixed with the colder waters of the Humbolt current, heat and moisture rise from the pool, distorting the jet stream, causing a disruption of global we ather patterns. Throughout the years, El Niño has been blamed for torrential floods, droughts, plagues, parasites and most recently, even tilting the Earth’s rotation, creating longer days (O’Driscoll). Recently in Ecuador, the storms have been brutal. Such acute devastation was felt on November 8th, 1997 in Santa Rosa, a small town amidst the banana-producing province of El Oro (“El Nino” 38). During the night, flooding left three thousand people homeless. The same storm carried away bridges and roads, and left banana and cocoa plantations underwater; whole shrimp farms we re washed away (38). Unfortunately, predicting where the storm will hit is not easy; a similar storm in 1982 was most severe in areas left untouched in 1997 (38). Ecuador in 1997 was looking at a price-tag of nearly $300 million worth of damage, compared to $165 million in 1982 (38). Adding to economic and social dilemma, scientific studies have recently shown that increased rainfall has spread “Plasmodium falciparum”, a parasite responsible for the most “virulent form of malaria” (“Malaria”). Through 1997, El Ni ño has wracked Ecuador, leaving President Fabian Alarcon only to plead for unity within his nation (“El Nino” 38). Protecting the Environment: The Confederation of Indigenous Nationalities of Ecuador "It is no accident that most of the remaining natural resources are on indigenous land. First the white world destroys their own environment, then they come asking for the last pieces of land they have put us on, the earth we have protected. " -Luis Macas, former president of CONAIE Ecuador ’s diverse geology fosters ideal climates for several valuable natural resources: rich soil for agricultural production, oil and timber. Unfortunately, the government and private business have extracted these resources without much deliberation on their potential harmful effects. An online brochure for “The Confederation of Indigenous Nationalities of Ecuador” (CONAIE), discusses past repercussions of such actions, “On the coast, the highlands, and the Amazon, unregulated logging, mining and pesticide use imperil the environment. Oil extraction in the Amazon has already caused the extinction of the Tetete and Zaparo nationalities and continues to threaten indigenous peoples” (Becker). These devastating effects forced indigenous people to take immediate action. CONAIE was established in June 1990 during a series of publicized protest demonstrations (levantamientos) to create solidarity among the indigenous people of Ecuador (Becker). Members began to assert their presence in environmental, social and economic policies within the country. They proposed “alternative forms of development that [combined] traditional knowledge with Western science to promote balanced ways of living with the environment” (Becker). Of course, the road to reform has not been easy. Theodore Macdonald, a scholar of social studies and anthropology at Harvard University, discussed the particular obstacles encountered by the indigenous people of Ecuador in his article: “ Ecuadors’ Past Offers Direction for the Future.” Macdonald believes the following exemplifies the reason for political uprising witnessed in Ecuador throughout the last decade. He insists, Ecuador’s government regularly makes “challenges to [indigenous peoples’] representational legitimacy” and their demands are frequently put on the “back burner” as political and economic strains take priority. Such blatant government refusal to listen to CONAIE’s demands for environmental protection has allo wed for exploitation of the Ecuador’s environment. CONAIEs grievances are the following: The facts:
Members of CONAIE have intimately felt the devastation of annual increases of “colonist encroachment” on their lands in the Amazon and the “expansion of export agro-industry in the Andean Highlands.” Each year, natives concede more land – a dire situation for a country that relies on these people to produce 75% of “ Ecuador’s basic foods.” Thus, the main objective of CONAIE is to return land to the indigenous people and demand representation in government policy. Ultimately CONAIE wishes to install a “plurinational state” (Macdonald). CONAIE asserts, “a people without land is a people without life…land is our sustenance.” With enormous respect for “mother earth” CONAIE advocates environmental legislation to promote their “long standing traditional forms of land use such as cooperatives, organic farming, natural pest control management…” (Becker). Members of CONAIE feel a connection to the environment that resonates throughout their culture – they view themselves as “part of the environment.” They believe their “traditional ways” allow them “to live in harmony with nature.” Outraged by the fact that their “homelands are rapidly disappearing,” CONAIE has become a political presence in the international arena (Becker). “ Ecuador’s domestic indigenous movement has received widespread international support, in particular because local indigenous concerns, especially about the environmental and social impact of oil development in the Amazon basin, overlap with international non-governmental interests.” CONAIE has become an activist group that the government cannot ignore. In “Growing Empo werment of Indigenous Organizations” Theodore Macdonald claims indigenous rights activist groups increasing po wer has allo wed them to expose exploitation processes and instigate environmental reforms: “The high profile conflicts now surrounding international natural resource exploitation—oil, gas, minerals, timber, and water—have become, in part, public means to expose the gaps bet ween legislation and practice, and to pressure governments to implement the new norms.” Due to CONAIE’s persistent challenges to the government’s mistreatment of Ecuador’s environment and its native people, there is hope for the future. Sources Devastating Effects of the Oleoducto de Crudos Pesados Although relatively small in size, Ecuador is one of the most biologically diverse nations in the world. A drastic range of altitude and geographical diversity in such a small area has resulted in a high number of diverse climactic regions. Because of their very different climates and altitudes, Ecuador’s four main regions, the lowland Pacific Coast, the Andes Mountains, the Amazon rainforest, and the Galapagos Islands, are each home to a wide variety of plant and animal species. These many distinct ecosystems and the hundreds of endemic species residing within Ecuador’s borders have led scientists to classify it as a biodiversity “hotspot”. Ecuador’s rich biodiversity and natural beauty have been key factors in the success of the nation’s ecotourism industry. Tourists from around the world are drawn to Ecuador by the opportunity to see plants and animals found nowhere else on Earth. Birdwatchers are especially interested in the lo wer elevations of the Andes, commonly known as the cloud forest, which are home to an extremely high number of endemic bird species. Unfortunately, many of Ecuador’s unique ecosystems are under threat from deforestation and other anthropogenic forces. The oil industry in Ecuador has historically been, and continues to be, one of the worst offenders of environmental degradation. Despite this, the Ecuadorian government, under the strong influence of the World Bank and IMF (International Monetary Fund), has encouraged the development of Ecuador’s oil reserves, as opposed to other more sustainable forms of economic growth, in an attempt to rescue the nation’s struggling economy. The Amazon rainforest, where virtually all of Ecuador’s oil reserves are located, boasts the highest biodiversity of all the regions and is under severe threat from oil exploration.
The pipeline will traverse the extremely unique ecosystem of the Andean paramo.
The environmental danger of transporting oil through these ecologically unique areas is immense. Due to the geological instability of the Andes Mountains, landslides, earthquakes, and volcanic eruptions are frequent, posing a major increase in the likelihood of oil spills. (OCP Alert, 6) An oil spill would not only destroy the immediate areas, but could have devastating effects on surrounding ecosystems as well. Because of the interconnectedness of many of these fragile regions, an oil spill in one water basin could seriously harm surrounding river systems. In order to protect the important biodiversity of Ecuador and other developing nations, steps must be taken to curb the devastating effects certain types of economic development continue to have on their fragile ecosystems. In order to attract foreign capital to these nations, international organizations like the IMF and World Bank have consistently encouraged the development of extractive industries like oil, which virtually without fail result in massive environmental degradation. Finding alternative ways of economic development that encourage environmental conservation and responsible resource use is crucial to the survival of Ecuador’s unique ecosystems and endemic species. Sources Ecuador’s Economy: Oil and Agriculture, Overdependence One of the main features of Ecuador ’s economy is its dependence on only a few key export commodities, most importantly oil and bananas. Oil accounts for approximately 40% of the export economy, while There are two main factors that have been very significant in determining the health of Ecuador ’s economy at any given time, and those are oil prices and extreme we ather events. Ecuador’s major agricultural exports are, of course, very susceptible to damage from harmful we ather; while the oil industry, until quite recently, has been dependent on only one major pipeline for transport, the Sistema Oleoducto Trans-Ecuatoriano (SOTE). In 1987 a large earthquake rocked Ecuador, destroying a large stretch of the SOTE pipeline, which, when combined with a decline in world oil prices, nearly resulted in a complete collapse of the economy. Another devastating we ather event, which also nearly resulted in the collapse of the Ecuadorian economy, was the El Nino Southern Oscillation of 1997-98. El Nino and Recession During 1999 and the first years of the new millennium, Ecuador experienced its worst economic downturn since the depression era of the 1930s. Ecuador ’s GDP fell by 30% in 1999 alone, and per capita income fell by 30% as we ll, leaving over 70% of Ecuador ’s 12.4 million people living in poverty. This recession caused a monetary crisis which saw the value of the sucre, Ecuador ’s currency, fall by 70% in 1999 and 2000. In order to stop the free fall of the sucre, and curb the attendant rampant inflation, the government was forced to dollarize their currency, or peg it to the American dollar. All of this economic instability led to the first military coup in Latin America in ten years, as President Jamil Mahaud was forced from office, to be replaced by his Vice President, Gustavo Noboa. The root of this economic crisis is Ecuador ’s continued overdependence on oil, which continues to dominate the economy today. The Oil Industry While private companies are moving in to take over some of Petroecuador’s production, there are still significant hurdles that have limited this trend. In June 2003 the government attempted to open the five large fields to private development through joint-venture contracts with foreign companies. In response, state-oil workers at Petroecuador we nt on strike, rapidly paralyzing the industry, and the government was forced to drop the joint-venture scheme. The current president of Ecuador, Lucio Gutierrez, has been working to entice more foreign investment in the industry, but he faces the same instability issues that have plagued the presidential office in Ecuador. His popularity has slipped below 10%, and he may very we ll not serve out the rest of his term, which ends in less than a year in October 2006. His party has just five seats in the 100-seat congress, making him a lame duck in passing legislation, and the recent rise in oil prices has given him only a short grace period that is sure to end. Conclusion Sources Conclusion
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Colby College | Science Technology & Society Department website design by Gerrit Lansing |
Ecuador is a nation of 12.87 million inhabitants, located directly on the equator in South America. With 271,000 square kilometers, Ecuador is about the size of the state of Colorado and contains dramatic geographical and biological diversity, including the biologically renowned Galapagos Islands. The mainland consists of three distinct regions, the tropical lowlands of the Pacific coast, the mountains and valleys of the Andean Sierra, the Amazon rainforest basin of the Oriente, that each has its own individual climate. Since Ecuador is located on the equator it does not have the traditional four seasons, but rather has a rainy season and dry season on the coast, two shorter rainy seasons in the highlands, and, of course, year round rain in the Amazon. The capital city of Quito, with a population of approximately 1.7 million people, is located in the Andes highlands at nearly 10,000 feet. 
However, the environmental effects caused by the oil industry in Ecuador are not limited to the Amazon region. The construction of the OCP (heavy crude oil pipeline) threatens many of the nation’s other fragile ecosystems. The pipeline, which would connect oil sources in the Amazon with the ocean port and refineries of Esmeraldas on the Pacific Coast, runs over the Andes through various protected areas and reserves and regions of high tourism activity. (OCP alert, 2) The high range of altitudes (up to 6300 meters) of the Andes, through which the pipeline will run, provides fragile and diverse habitats for a variety of plants and animals. Also, the many isolated areas of the Andean region have led to the evolution of an unusually large number of endemic species. 
The high altitude paramo region begins at the upper edge of the mountain forests and extends as high as the glacier line of about 5000 meters. The paramo is characterized by a harsh, high altitude climate. It is generally cold and dry (although some areas can be swampy), and supports low lying vegetation like shrubs and grasses. (High Altitude Paramo, no page) The paramo is important to other ecosystems of Ecuador because of its role as a water source. Melted ice from glaciers is filtered by grasses and collects in the paramo’s many lakes. This region is inhabited almost exclusively by marginalized indigenous peoples who practice subsistence agriculture. If an oil spill were to occur here not only would an extremely rare and fragile ecosystem be harmed, but many people’s way of life would also be negatively impacted.
The Mindo cloud forest is another region located in the path of the OCP. The climate of the cloud forest is hot and wet, similar to that of the rainforest. Ho wever, because of its location on the steep slopes of the Andes (as opposed to the flat landscape of the rainforest), sunlight is able to penetrate deeper into the forest, creating a distinct habitat. The people of this region rely on income generated by ecotourism projects and scientific research, both of which obviously have a strong connection to the health of the natural environment. (OCP Alert, 6)
bananas are responsible for about 17%, and Ecuador is the largest producer of bananas in the world. The rest of the economy is mostly based on less important agricultural exports, such as shrimp and flo we rs, which account for 6% and 4% of exports respectively. Ecuador is almost completely reliant on the success of these few industries, particularly oil, and so has suffered through a cycle of boom and bust economies over the past several decades, since oil was discovered in the 1970s. Furthermore, in the last six years Ecuador has had four different presidents, and the national office has been dogged by scandals and corruption. This environment has made it very difficult for the government to accomplish the reforms that are necessary to stabilize the nation when the economy faces a serious downturn. 
The El Nino Southern Oscillation, or simply El Nino, has hit Ecuador with devastating effect a number of times over the past t we nty-five years. The 1982-83 El Nino cause over $650 million in damage, and was the cause of 600 deaths, wreaking havoc on Ecuador ’s agricultural industries especially. Most recently, the El Nino of 1997-98 battered Ecuador, causing $2.65 billion worth of damage. This El Nino is considered to be one of the biggest ever, and the floods and torrential downpours that struck Ecuador again crippled the agricultural industries, including the important banana industry. In addition, parts of the SOTE pipeline we re damaged, and along with a global depression in oil prices Ecuador ’s economy was thrown into a tailspin. 
Since the late 1990s Petroecuador has seen its production steadily drop, while private companies have moved in to take up the slack. The steady drop in production can be attributed to underinvestment in the company’s operated fields, and significant budget cuts that are necessary for Ecuador to comply with its IMF commitments. To facilitate this transition, Petroecuador and the government have been selling state-owned plots in some of the largest fields to foreign companies, on the condition that specific investments are made to upgrade technology and infrastructure on the sites. In addition, a new, privately operated, heavy oil pipeline known as the Oleducto de Crudos Pesados, or OCP, was finished in September 2003 and has doubled the transportation capacity from the main fields in the Amazon basin. 
Clearly, drastic governmental actions must be taken to prevent further harm to the environment and economy of Ecuador. Increased regulations must be set for further developments in order to protect the most pristine and precious areas of ecological importance. If Ecuador is going to offer the valuable resources in the future, the government would be wise to 
incorporate CONAIE’s approach to sustainable living and adapt more environmental friendly tactics. Steps to curb current devastation while improving and stabilizing the economy can only be done with support and compassion from the entire international community.